Chapter 19 | Evolution and the Origin of Species

  1. Figure 19.15 Which is most likely to survive, offspring with 2n+1 chromosomes or offspring with 2n-1 chromosomes?
    Aneuploidy results when chromosomes fail to separate correctly during meiosis. As a result, one gamete has one too many chromosomes, shown as n plus 1, and the other has one too few, shown as n minus 1. When the n + 1 gamete fuses with a normal gamete, the resulting zygote has 2 n + 1 chromosomes. When the n minus 1 gamete fuses with a normal gamete, the resulting zygote has 2 n minus 1 chromosomes.
    Figure 19.15 Aneuploidy results when the gametes have too many or too few chromosomes due to nondisjunction during meiosis. In the example shown here, the resulting offspring will have 2n+1 or 2n-1 chromosomes.
  2. Figure 19.23 If two species eat a different diet but one of the food sources is eliminated and both species are forced to eat the same foods, what change in the hybrid zone is most likely to occur?
    Three different possible changes in the hybrid zone may occur over time. The first possible change, reinforcement, results when hybrids are less fit than either purebred species. Like a fork in the road, the species continue to diverge until hybridization no longer occurs. The second possible change, fusion, results when reproductive barriers weaken until two species become one. In this scenario species initially diverge, but then join together. In the third scenario, stability, fit hybrids continue to be produced at a steady rate.
    Figure 19.23 After speciation has occurred, the two separate but closely related species may continue to produce offspring in an area called the hybrid zone. Reinforcement, fusion, or stability may result, depending on reproductive barriers and the relative fitness of the hybrids.
  3. Figure 19.24 Which of the following statements is false?
    1. Punctuated equilibrium is most likely to occur in a small population that experiences a rapid change in its environment.
    2. Punctuated equilibrium is most likely to occur in a large population that lives in a stable climate.
    3. Gradual speciation is most likely to occur in species that live in a stable climate.
    4. Gradual speciation and punctuated equilibrium both result in the evolution of new species.
      In the gradual speciation example, a founder species of bird diverges into one species with a hooked beak, and another with strait beak. Over time, the hooked beak gets longer and thinner, and the straight beak gets shorter and fatter. In the punctuated equilibrium example, as in the graduated speciation example, the founder species diverges into one species with a hooked break and another with a straight beak. However, in this case the hooked and straight beaks gives rise immediately to long, thin and short, fat beaks.
      Figure 19.24 In (a) gradual speciation, species diverge at a slow, steady pace as traits change incrementally. In (b) punctuated equilibrium, species diverge quickly and then remain unchanged for long periods of time.
  4. Figure 19.25 In plants, violet flower color (V) is dominant over white (v). If p=.8 and q = 0.2 in a population of 500 plants, how many individuals would you expect to be homozygous dominant (VV), heterozygous (Vv), and homozygous recessive (vv)? How many plants would you expect to have violet flowers, and how many would have white flowers?
    The Hardy-Weinberg principle is used to predict the genotypic distribution of offspring in a given population. In the example given, pea plants have two different alleles for pea color. The dominant capital Y allele results in yellow pea color, and the recessive small y allele results in green pea color. The distribution of individuals in a population of 500 is given. Of the 500 individuals, 245 are homozygous dominant (capital Y capital Y) and produce yellow peas. 210 are heterozygous (capital Y small y) and also produce yellow peas. 45 are homozygous recessive (small y small y) and produce green peas. The frequencies of homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive individuals are 0.49, 0.42, and 0.09, respectively. Each of the 500 individuals provides two alleles to the gene pool, or 1000 total. The 245 homozygous dominant individuals provide two capital Y alleles to the gene pool, or 490 total. The 210 heterozygous individuals provide 210 capital Y and 210 small y alleles to the gene pool. The 45 homozygous recessive individuals provide two small y alleles to the gene pool, or 90 total. The number of capital Y alleles is 490 from homozygous dominant individuals plus 210 from homozygous recessive individuals, or 700 total. The number of small y alleles is 210 from heterozygous individuals plus 90 from homozygous recessive individuals, or 300 total. The allelic frequency is calculated by dividing the number of each allele by the total number of alleles in the gene pool. For the capital Y allele, the allelic frequency is 700 divided by 1000, or 0.7; this allelic frequency is called p. For the small y allele the allelic frequency is 300 divided by 1000, or 0.3; the allelic frequency is called q. Hardy-Weinberg analysis is used to determine the genotypic frequency in the offspring. The Hardy-Wienberg equation is p-squared plus 2pq plus q-squared equals 1. For the population given, the frequency is 0.7-squared plus 2 times .7 times .3 plus .3-squared equals one. The value for p-squared, 0.49, is the predicted frequency of homozygous dominant (capital Y capital Y) individuals. The value for 2pq, 0.42, is the predicted frequency of heterozygous (capital Y small y) individuals. The value for q-squared, .09, is the predicted frequency of homozygous recessive individuals. Note that the predicted frequency of genotypes in the offspring is the same as the frequency of genotypes in the parent population. If all the genotypic frequencies, .49 plus .42 plus .09, are added together, the result is one
    Figure 19.25 When populations are in the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the allelic frequency is stable from generation to generation and the distribution of alleles can be determined from the Hardy-Weinberg equation. If the allelic frequency measured in the field differs from the predicted value, scientists can make inferences about what evolutionary forces are at play.
  5. Figure 19.27 Do you think genetic drift would happen more quickly on an island or on the mainland?
    A population has 10 rabbits. 2 of these rabbits are homozygous dominant for the B allele and have brown coat color. 6 are heterozygous and also have brown coat color. Two are homozygous recessive and have white coat color. The frequency of the capital B allele, p, is .5 and the frequency of the small b allele, q, is also .5.Only 5 of the rabbits, including 2 homozygous dominant and 3 heterozygous individuals, produce offspring. 5 of the resulting offspring are homozygous dominant, 4 are heterozygous, and 1 is homozygous recessive. The frequency of alleles in the second generation is p=.7 and q=.3. Only 2 rabbits in the second generation produce offspring, and both of these are homozygous dominant. As a result, the recessive small b allele is lost in the third generation, and all of the rabbits are heterozygous dominant with brown coat color.
    Figure 19.27 Genetic drift in a population can lead to the elimination of an allele from a population by chance. In this example, rabbits with the brown coat color allele (B) are dominant over rabbits with the white coat color allele (b). In the first generation, the two alleles occur with equal frequency in the population, resulting in p and q values of .5. Only half of the individuals reproduce, resulting in a second generation with p and q values of .7 and .3, respectively. Only two individuals in the second generation reproduce, and by chance these individuals are homozygous dominant for brown coat color. As a result, in the third generation the recessive b allele is lost.
  6. Figure 19.31 In recent years, factories have become cleaner, and less soot is released into the environment. What impact do you think this has had on the distribution of moth color in the population?
    Part (a) shows a robin clutch size as an example of stabilizing selection. Robins typically lay four eggs. Larger clutches may result in malnourished chicks, while smaller clutches may result in no viable offspring. A wide bell curve indicates that, in the original population, there was a lot of variability in clutch size. Overlaying this wide bell curve is a narrow one that represents the clutch size after natural selection, which is much less variable. Part (b) shows moth color as an example of directional selection. Light-colored pepper moths are better camouflaged against a pristine environment, while dark-colored peppered moths are better camouflaged against a sooty environment. Thus, as the Industrial Revolution progressed in nineteenth-century England, the color of the moth population shifted from light to dark, an example of directional selection. A bell curve representing the original population and one representing the population after natural selection only slightly overlap. Part (c) shows rabbit coat color as an example of diversifying selection. In this hypothetical example, gray and Himalayan (gray and white) rabbits are better able to blend into their rocky environment than white ones. The original population is represented by a bell curve in which white is the most common coat color, while gray and Himalayan colors, on the right and left flank of the curve, are less common. After natural selection, the bell curve splits into two peaks, indicating gray and Himalayan coat color have become more common than the intermediate white coat color.
    Figure 19.31 Different types of natural selection can impact the distribution of phenotypes within a population. In (a) stabilizing selection, an average phenotype is favored. In (b) directional selection, a change in the environment shifts the spectrum of phenotypes observed. In (c) diversifying selection, two or more extreme phenotypes are selected for, while the average phenotype is selected against.

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