allele gene variations that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes

aneuploid individual with an error in chromosome number; includes deletions and duplications of chromosome segments

autosome any of the non-sex chromosomes

autosomes any of the non-sex chromosomes

blending theory of inheritance hypothetical inheritance pattern in which parental traits are blended together in the offspring to produce an intermediate physical appearance

centimorgan (cM) (also, map unit) relative distance that corresponds to a recombination frequency of 0.01

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance theory proposing that chromosomes are the vehicles of genes and that their behavior during meiosis is the physical basis of the inheritance patterns that Mendel observed

chromosome inversion detachment, 180° rotation, and reinsertion of a chromosome arm

codominance in a heterozygote, complete and simultaneous expression of both alleles for the same characteristic

continuous variation inheritance pattern in which a character shows a range of trait values with small gradations rather than large gaps between them

dihybrid result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for two characteristics

discontinuous variation inheritance pattern in which traits are distinct and are transmitted independently of one another

dominant trait which confers the same physical appearance whether an individual has two copies of the trait or one copy of the dominant trait and one copy of the recessive trait

dominant lethal inheritance pattern in which an allele is lethal both in the homozygote and the heterozygote; this allele can only be transmitted if the lethality phenotype occurs after reproductive age

epistasis antagonistic interaction between genes such that one gene masks or interferes with the expression of another

euploid individual with the appropriate number of chromosomes for their species

F₁first filial generation in a cross; the offspring of the parental generation

F₂second filial generation produced when F₁ individuals are self-crossed or fertilized with each other

genotype underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both physically visible and non-expressed alleles, of an organism

hemizygous presence of only one allele for a characteristic, as in X-linkage; hemizygosity makes descriptions of dominance and recessiveness irrelevant

heterozygous having two different alleles for a given gene on the homologous chromosome

homologous recombination process by which homologous chromosomes undergo reciprocal physical exchanges at their arms, also known as crossing over

homozygous having two identical alleles for a given gene on the homologous chromosome

hybridization process of mating two individuals that differ with the goal of achieving a certain characteristic in their offspring

incomplete dominance in a heterozygote, expression of two contrasting alleles such that the individual displays an intermediate phenotype

karyogram photographic image of a karyotype

karyotype number and appearance of an individuals chromosomes; includes the size, banding patterns, and centromere position

law of dominance in a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the same characteristic

law of independent assortment genes do not influence each other with regard to sorting of alleles into gametes; every possible combination of alleles is equally likely to occur

law of segregation paired unit factors (i.e., genes) segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting any combination of factors

linkage phenomenon in which alleles that are located in close proximity to each other on the same chromosome are more likely to be inherited together

model system species or biological system used to study a specific biological phenomenon to be applied to other different species

monohybrid result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for only one characteristic

monosomy otherwise diploid genotype in which one chromosome is missing

nondisjunction failure of synapsed homologs to completely separate and migrate to separate poles during the first cell division of meiosis

nonparental (recombinant) type progeny resulting from homologous recombination that exhibits a different allele combination compared with its parents

P₀parental generation in a cross

paracentric inversion that occurs outside of the centromere

parental types progeny that exhibits the same allelic combination as its parents

pericentric inversion that involves the centromere

phenotype observable traits expressed by an organism

polyploid individual with an incorrect number of chromosome sets

product rule probability of two independent events occurring simultaneously can be calculated by multiplying the individual probabilities of each event occurring alone

Punnett square visual representation of a cross between two individuals in which the gametes of each individual are denoted along the top and side of a grid, respectively, and the possible zygotic genotypes are recombined at each box in the grid

recessive trait that appears “latent” or non-expressed when the individual also carries a dominant trait for that same characteristic; when present as two identical copies, the recessive trait is expressed

recessive lethal inheritance pattern in which an allele is only lethal in the homozygous form; the heterozygote may be normal or have some altered, non-lethal phenotype

reciprocal cross paired cross in which the respective traits of the male and female in one cross become the respective traits of the female and male in the other cross

recombination frequency average number of crossovers between two alleles; observed as the number of nonparental types in a population of progeny

sex-linked any gene on a sex chromosome

sum rule probability of the occurrence of at least one of two mutually exclusive events is the sum of their individual probabilities

test cross cross between a dominant expressing individual with an unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual; the offspring phenotypes indicate whether the unknown parent is heterozygous or homozygous for the dominant trait

trait variation in the physical appearance of a heritable characteristic

translocation process by which one segment of a chromosome dissociates and reattaches to a different, nonhomologous chromosome

trisomy otherwise diploid genotype in which one entire chromosome is duplicated

X inactivation condensation of X chromosomes into Barr bodies during embryonic development in females to compensate for the double genetic dose

X-linked gene present on the X, but not the Y chromosome